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The paper argues that the dominant 'Billions to Trillions' agenda, which prioritises private sector mobilisation and de-risking, often conflicts with international human rights standards. It evaluates this architecture through five principle clusters: national responsibilities, national sovereignty, procedural fairness, responsibilities of financial investment, and obligations during crises. The author contends that this model commodifies public goods, undermines state policy autonomy through investment treaties, and lacks transparency. Using South Africa's Just Energy Transition Investment Plan (JET-IP) as a case study, the report highlights gaps in public transport funding and the risks of private-sector dominance. It concludes by proposing a research agenda to bridge the gap between human rights norms and the actual implementation of climate investment plans.

The document provides a detailed overview of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, distinguishing between the bilateral/multilateral trading of Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs) under Article 6.2 and the UN-supervised global carbon market under Article 6.4. It highlights critical concerns regarding double counting, the lack of oversight in Article 6.2, the risks associated with transitioning legacy Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects, and the potential for 'emissions avoidance' to undermine environmental integrity. The guide outlines key priorities for COP28, including the need for stricter reporting rules, a code of conduct for confidentiality, and the establishment of independent grievance processes.

Between 2017 and 2021, international public adaptation finance for developing countries stayed at or below US$25 billion annually, with a 15 per cent drop to US$21 billion in 2021. The report highlights a lower disbursement ratio for adaptation (66 per cent) compared to general development finance (98 per cent), citing barriers such as low grant-to-loan ratios and limited technical capacity. While grants are more prevalent for Least Developed Countries (52 per cent) and Small Island Developing States (67 per cent), less than 17 per cent of commitments targeted local communities. The document emphasizes that while domestic and private finance are vital, they cannot bridge the gap alone, particularly in low-income countries.

The briefing identifies four critical areas for COP28 success: adopting a transformational response to the Global Stocktake, accelerating systems transformation in energy, food, and cities, responding to severe climate impacts through the Loss and Damage Fund and adaptation frameworks, and delivering scaled climate finance to vulnerable nations.

Global climate finance reached an annual average of nearly USD 1.3 trillion in 2021/2022, though this represents only 1% of global GDP. Mitigation finance dominates, particularly in energy and transport, while adaptation finance remains critically underfunded and dominated by public actors. Finance is heavily concentrated in developed economies and China, with significant gaps in least developed countries (LDCs) and emerging markets. The report argues that annual needs must increase at least five-fold to avoid the worst impacts of climate change, recommending reforms to international financial institutions and the mobilization of domestic capital.

The document details Africa's strategic position for COP28, as framed by the Nairobi Declaration. It argues that the continent must shift from being viewed as a 'climate victim' to a 'climate champion' by leveraging its renewable energy potential and critical minerals. Central to this is a demand for a complete overhaul of the global financial architecture to increase grant-based and concessional finance, as current investments are far below the $2.8 trillion needed by 2030. The brief emphasizes the urgent need to operationalize the Loss and Damage Fund and double adaptation finance to prevent an estimated $6 trillion in economic losses by 2035. It also highlights the importance of the first Global Stocktake as an accountability tool to hold the world's largest emitters and fossil-fuel companies responsible.

The document argues that while clean energy transitions can drive development and gender equality, they risk reinforcing existing inequalities without intentional policy design. It identifies significant financing gaps, particularly for adaptation in low-income regions, and implementation barriers such as high connection fees for rural households. The authors recommend that the G20 facilitate lesson-sharing on policy innovations, promote gender-responsive programs that empower women as producers rather than just consumers, and establish a permanent platform for evidence generation on inclusive green transitions.

The report argues that current NDCs and financial frameworks are insufficient to reach net-zero emissions, particularly in developing and emerging economies facing high debt. It proposes nine principles for international climate finance, emphasizing that developed countries must scale up support based on common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR). Key recommendations include adopting bottom-up, sector-specific finance needs, utilizing innovative mechanisms like debt-for-climate swaps, and aligning finance with national policy processes to avoid carbon lock-ins. The report highlights the importance of 'just transitions' and the synergy between mitigation, adaptation, and loss and damage funding.

The document argues that MDBs must shift from a project-by-project approach to a systemic, program-based model to address the climate crisis in emerging markets and developing economies (EMDEs). It recommends scaling country sector platforms, deploying risk-sharing instruments like guarantees and local currency financing, and overhauling MDB business models through standardization and an 'originate-to-distribute' balance sheet strategy. The authors emphasize the need for better integration of domestic financial institutions and increased transparency in data sharing to mobilize private capital at scale.

President Sauli Niinistö emphasizes that the world is facing a series of interlocking crises—including climate change, food insecurity, and the war in Ukraine—that cannot be solved by any single nation. He highlights the disproportionate impact of climate change on African countries and commits Finland to increasing international climate finance for developing nations. Niinistö also discusses Finland's decision to join NATO as a security measure in response to Russian aggression in Ukraine, while advocating for a just peace for Ukraine and the importance of African leadership in global governance.

The African Climate Foundation outlines a comprehensive set of recommendations to reform the international financial system, addressing systemic imbalances that limit Africa's access to affordable funding. The report highlights a critical gap in climate finance, noting that mitigation receives over ten times the funding of adaptation. Key proposals include reforming IMF and World Bank governance, overhauling the G20 Common Framework on Debt Treatment, and establishing a Global Resilience Reserve Fund. It also emphasizes the need to address the 'risk mind-set' and biased credit ratings that impose high interest rates on African governments despite low infrastructure project default rates.

The document proposes a systematic classification framework to identify and screen climate resilience investments, aiming to bridge the gap between high-level resilience goals and capital market flows. It defines eligibility based on 'Substantial Contribution' to resilience while avoiding maladaptation and significant harm, categorizing investments into a white list, standardized checks, and further assessment. The framework is organized around seven themes: Resilient Agrifood Systems, Resilient Industry & Commerce, Resilient Cities, Resilient Nature & Biodiversity, Resilient Health, Resilient Societies, and Resilient Infrastructure.

The Ninth Meeting of the San Giorgio Group convened financial sector actors to identify practical solutions for scaling climate finance. The discussions focused on three primary areas: evolving 'just energy transition' into a broader 'just transformation' through co-creation and pilot projects; reframing adaptation finance as an investment opportunity rather than solely a public finance issue; and reforming Multilateral Development Bank (MDB) operating models to move toward country-level platforms and innovative risk-sharing instruments.

The report finds that while global climate finance reached USD 1.3 trillion in 2021–2022, adaptation finance is diminishing in relative importance, accounting for only 5% of total flows. Developing countries face a significant funding gap, needing approximately USD 212 billion annually by 2030. In Africa, adaptation finance grew modestly by 14% to USD 13 billion annually, yet remains far below the estimated need of USD 53 billion per year. The analysis highlights an over-reliance on debt as the primary financial instrument and a critical lack of robust, adaptation-specific commitments from public financial institutions. Furthermore, it reveals a disconnect between adaptation finance and humanitarian aid, noting that the most fragile African states depend on emergency response funding because they struggle to access proactive adaptation finance.

The South African Climate Finance Landscape 2023 report finds that while annual tracked climate finance reached an all-time high of R131 billion between 2019 and 2021, this remains significantly below the estimated annual needs of R334 billion to R535 billion. The landscape is heavily dominated by domestic private sector debt, with clean energy receiving the vast majority of funding, while adaptation and low-carbon transport remain severely underfunded.

The study investigates a UN Adaptation Fund project in Madagascar's Aloatra-Mangoro region, finding that project benefits disproportionately accrued to households with higher political connectivity rather than the most vulnerable, thereby exacerbating local inequality.

Good Governance Africa evaluates COP27, noting the establishment of a fund for vulnerable developing countries as a major achievement but criticizing the lack of accountability from the Global North. The statement highlights that Africa is disproportionately affected by climate change despite contributing only 4% of global emissions. It identifies critical gaps in adaptation finance, noting that the $100 billion pledge remains unmet and that $300 billion is needed by 2030. The document also critiques African disunity over the role of gas in energy transitions, poor local governance in disaster management, and the failure of oil-wealthy nations like Nigeria and Angola to achieve sustainable development due to corruption.

In 2021, MDB climate finance to developing countries reached a record $58.9 billion (UNFCCC definition), hitting a collective 2025 target of $50 billion four years early. However, the report highlights significant failures: private sector co-financing rates fell to 25 cents per dollar of public finance, and the share of funding for the most vulnerable countries (SIDS and LDCs) dropped to 19% from 22% in 2020. Additionally, MDBs provided $4.6 billion in fossil fuel financing in 2021, including a $4.5 billion loan for oil and LNG imports from Saudi Arabia to Pakistan. The author urges MDBs to increase adaptation finance, which reached $17.6 billion but remains far below estimated annual costs of $70 billion, and calls for independent verification of self-reported data to improve transparency.

The document provides a detailed breakdown of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, distinguishing between the bilateral trading of Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs) under Article 6.2 and the UN-overseen global carbon market under Article 6.4. It highlights critical risks such as double counting, the potential for 'junk' credits transitioning from the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and the lack of transparency in reporting. The guide also argues against the inclusion of avoided emissions and short-lived carbon storage as bases for credits, while advocating for mandatory cancellation rates to ensure overall mitigation in global emissions.

The report argues that current climate finance is woefully inadequate to meet Paris Agreement goals, with developing countries alone requiring $4.3 trillion for 2030 commitments. It outlines a three-stage framework—planning, implementation, and monitoring—and details a variety of fiscal and policy instruments to align public spending, increase public funding, and mobilize private capital.