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The report traces the history of international climate policy, highlighting the shift from the 'top-down' prescriptive approach of the Kyoto Protocol to the 'bottom-up' voluntary system of the Paris Agreement. It examines the central role of the 'common but differentiated responsibilities' (CBDR) principle and the challenges of ensuring the participation of major emitters while maintaining equity for developing nations. The text concludes that while the regime has grown in complexity and universality, current collective emission reduction promises remain insufficient to limit global warming to 1.5°C or 2°C.

The document outlines Spain's energy taxation system, primarily governed by the Hydrocarbon Tax (IEH) and the Special Tax on Coal, which are aligned with EU Directive 2003/96/EC. It details various tax subsidies, including reduced rates and exemptions for diesel in agriculture, professional transport, and aviation. To transition away from fossil fuels, Spain has implemented Law 7/2021, which prohibits new hydrocarbon exploration and mandates that new tax benefits for fossil fuels be justified by social or economic interest. The report also lists support mechanisms for renewables, such as the Recovery, Transformation and Resilience Plan and the PERTE ERHA, aimed at promoting green hydrogen, storage, and energy efficiency.

The report evaluates tree planting in the Canadian prairie ecozone as a carbon sequestration strategy. It concludes that while tree planting provides significant environmental, economic, and social benefits—such as erosion control and energy savings—it cannot alone meet Canada's goal of stabilizing GHG emissions at 1990 levels. The document advocates for a combined approach including fuel switching, energy efficiency, and improved agricultural practices. It details the direct costs of planting in Saskatchewan and the potential for carbon credit markets, while noting that the long-term sequestration potential of trees exceeds that of agricultural crops.

The paper describes the three 'quality institutions' (rule-making, conformity assessment, and accreditation) that enable international trade by ensuring product and process quality. It highlights the differences between these institutions in developed versus developing countries and examines the international architecture designed to harmonize these systems. The author argues that geographical and temporal inconsistency in quality requirements creates business uncertainty and increases compliance costs. The document details the role of the WTO's Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) in promoting international standards and discusses the importance of mutual recognition agreements and the IAF-ILAC multilateral recognition arrangement (MLA) in achieving a system where products are "once tested, once certified, accepted everywhere."

The author contends that the environment has secured an established place in the WTO, not through the Committee on Trade and Environment or Doha Round negotiations, but via the Appellate Body's role in filling legal gaps and clarifying ambiguities. The document highlights how the Appellate Body has integrated international environmental law into trade disputes, provided a framework for the precautionary principle, and allowed for certain Process and Production Methods (PPMs) distinctions under General Exceptions. While developing countries remain cautious due to fears of protectionism, the author suggests that the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism has effectively bridged the gap between trade liberalization and sustainable development.

The document argues that providing explicit assurance of credit and banking for 'early action' (reductions between 1990 and 2007) is essential to overcome barriers for Canadian businesses and entrepreneurs. It proposes a two-step approach: first, providing credit for validated reductions to ensure participants are not penalized relative to non-participants, and second, allowing the banking of these credits for use against future obligations or for trading. The report details necessary infrastructure, including measurement protocols, a registry (potentially via the Voluntary Challenge and Registry office), and auditing standards, while drawing on models from the U.S. and Canadian pilot projects like GERT and PERT.

The paper examines how Zambia manages competing public needs through macroeconomic reforms and growth stimulation. It details the transition from state-led economic management to a liberalised system, focusing on GDP growth, inflation control, and interest rate reductions to expand the state's resource envelope.

The document analyzes the transformation of the Lesotho Defence Force (LDF) from its origins as a paramilitary unit to its current state as a professionalized military. It details the shift from military rule (1986–1993) to a democratic dispensation starting in 1993, highlighting the role of security sector reforms supported by South Africa, Botswana, and India. The report examines the legal and institutional frameworks—including the 1993 Constitution and the 1996 LDF Act—that establish civilian oversight, while noting that power remains heavily centralized in the Prime Minister's office. It also discusses the LDF's role within the SADC regional security framework and the challenges of balancing defence spending with socio-economic priorities.

The document examines the evolution of environmental security, critiquing 'statist' models that view environmental scarcity primarily as a threat to the state. It proposes a 'human security' framework, specifically applying a Sustainable Livelihoods approach to understand how land access and tenure systems in Africa influence poverty and conflict. The author highlights that in southern Africa, colonial legacies of land dispossession and current 'opportunistic land grabbing' by elites exacerbate insecurity. The paper concludes that sustainable security requires moving beyond technical fixes to address the underlying power imbalances, governance failures, and social injustices that drive environmental and human insecurity.

The document details a seminar where Austrian and South African representatives, alongside academics, discussed the challenges of peacekeeping in Africa, the legitimacy of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine, the role of the International Criminal Court (ICC), and the necessity of UN Security Council reform. It highlights the different strategic positions of Austria as a facilitator and South Africa as a regional power, while analyzing the 'Prodi report' on UN-AU peacekeeping cooperation.

The report examines how insecure land access and the manipulation of land rights contribute to poverty and violent conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa. It highlights the tension between customary and statutory tenure systems and warns that land is often used as a 'resource of conflict' by elites to consolidate power and enforce ethnic divisions. The authors argue for the importance of local governance and field-based empirical research in developing effective land policies and reconciliation efforts.

The document provides a historical analysis of the military forces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, beginning with the Force Publique under King Léopold II and continuing through the Zairian Armed Forces (FAZ) under President Mobutu. It details the systemic politicisation, tribalisation, and de-professionalisation of the army during the Mobutu era, which led to a breakdown in civil-military relations. The text further examines the conflicts involving the AFDL and the 'First African World War,' culminating in the Inter-Congolese Dialogue and the subsequent efforts to integrate government and rebel forces into a restructured, apolitical national army under the 2003 constitution.

The report examines how land tenure insecurity, scarcity, and the tension between customary and statutory legal systems contribute to both the structural and proximate causes of conflict in Africa. It argues that poverty and the loss of livelihoods are central to the conflict-underdevelopment cycle, and that land often serves as a tool for political struggle among elites or a source of ethnic mobilisation. Through case studies of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, and Angola, the text highlights the risks of 'formalising' land rights without considering local customs and the importance of multi-sectoral, pro-poor land policies in post-conflict reconstruction.

The monograph examines the transition of private military and security companies (PMSCs) from combat-oriented 'markets for force' to support-oriented 'markets for peace' in Africa. It analyzes the legal ambiguities surrounding PMSC status under international humanitarian law, the challenges of accountability and transparency in hybrid missions in countries like Liberia and Sudan, and the tension between the pragmatic need for private capacity and the moral concerns regarding the privatization of state security functions. The authors propose a 'steering and rowing' framework to ensure that the UN and AU maintain strategic control while utilizing private firms for non-core technical and logistical support.

The report examines the theft of gold and platinum group metals (PGMs) in South Africa between 1994 and 1999. It highlights a significant gap between detected recoveries and estimated undetected losses, particularly for gold, where undetected theft is estimated at 35 tons per year. The document details the hierarchical structure of criminal syndicates, the challenges faced by the South African Police Service (SAPS) Diamond and Gold Branch—including resource shortages and corruption—and the economic threat to the mining industry's profitability and employment.

The report analyzes the intersection of private security services and international law, specifically focusing on the definition of mercenaries under Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions and the legal obligations of states where such companies are based. It explores the legitimacy of providing military support to governments versus dissident parties, the risks of privatizing security for corporations in weak states, and the ethical and legal dilemmas humanitarian organisations face when considering armed escorts. The text concludes that the rise of 'new mercenaries' requires a coordinated UN response to prevent the erosion of national sovereignty and ensure adherence to humanitarian principles.

The fact sheet highlights a growing trend of incorporating nature-based solutions (NbS) and ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) into National Adaptation Plans (NAPs). While most NAPs identify biodiversity and ecosystems as priority sectors and a high percentage link climate change to biodiversity loss, there is a gap in referencing national biodiversity strategies. The document provides data on the specific ecosystems and types of actions (such as sustainable management and restoration) most frequently mentioned in NAPs and suggests action points to improve coordination and investment in under-represented ecosystems.

Natural Justice provides comments on the draft National Petroleum Policy 2026, arguing that its objective to promote petroleum exploration and production contradicts Kenya's goals for a just energy transition and decarbonization. The organization urges the government to prioritize renewable energy alternatives and phase out fossil fuels rather than integrating oil and gas into the economy.

The Climate Justice Movement (CJM) in Kenya is a decentralized coalition of civil society, grassroots organizations, and indigenous groups working to address unequal climate impacts. While the movement has successfully influenced policy and established a strong grassroots presence, it faces challenges including internal leadership disputes, limited funding, and coordination gaps. The study highlights the importance of the Financing Locally Led Climate Action (FLLoCA) program and the need for better gender mainstreaming and technical capacity building to ensure equitable climate action.

The document outlines the role of community protocols as interfaces between customary laws and national ABS frameworks, drawing on case studies from Kenya, South Africa, Namibia, Benin, Madagascar, and Cameroon to highlight best practices in community empowerment and legal recognition.