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The document identifies critical gaps in the U.S. nuclear supply chain, particularly regarding HALEU fuel, nuclear-grade graphite, and ultra-large forgings, noting a heavy reliance on Russia and China for these essential materials and services.

The policy brief highlights the reliance of the nascent next-generation geothermal industry on a global supply chain and urges the U.S. government to ensure FEOC tax credit rules do not obstruct development.

The United States faces significant vulnerabilities in its critical mineral supply chain, relying on imports for 100% of 12 critical minerals and 50% or more for another 28 as of 2024. While the U.S. possesses deposits of many essential minerals, domestic production is hindered by permitting processes that average 16 years and the higher cost of domestic operations compared to overseas production. The document highlights the environmental risks of open-pit mining—including greenhouse gas emissions and groundwater contamination—and the specific impact on Native American reservations, where a high percentage of nickel, lithium, and cobalt resources are located. It explores secondary recovery from waste like coal ash and desalination brine as a sustainable alternative, though these methods currently face economic and technical barriers. Recent U.S. policy efforts include the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, the Inflation Reduction Act, and 2025 executive orders aimed at expediting permitting and exploring deep-sea mining.

The report argues that artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is an underestimated but significant contributor to the global supply of critical minerals, particularly cobalt, tin, and tantalum. It highlights that while some minerals like lithium have high potential for ASM extraction in pegmatite deposits, others like graphite are less viable due to low value per unit of weight. The document emphasizes that the sector's deep informality, lack of geological data, and restrictive licensing frameworks hinder its potential. It presents case studies from the DRC, Indonesia, and Chile to demonstrate both the challenges of informality and the success of formalization models like Chile's ENAMI. The report concludes that for ASM to become a reliable supplier, governments must streamline licensing, provide geological foundations for small-scale plots, and create tailored regulatory frameworks specifically for critical minerals rather than relying on generic gold or gemstone policies.

India aims to indigenize battery manufacturing through the PLI-ACC scheme to install 50 GWh of capacity by 2026, yet remains heavily reliant on imports for cells, components, and machinery. The report identifies six primary challenges: skilled labour shortages, a lack of testing and validation centres, dependence on imported critical minerals, insufficient recycling infrastructure, the need for ESG standards to ensure export competitiveness, and high import dependence for manufacturing equipment. It recommends prioritizing the localization of synthetic anodes, electrolytes, and LFP cathodes, while expanding R&D for next-generation technologies like sodium-ion batteries.

The document analyzes India's high import dependence on copper and the global supply risks—including geopolitical instability in producer nations and declining ore grades—that threaten its economic and energy goals. It proposes a four-pronged strategy: diversifying primary supply through strategic partnerships, reforming trade duties to encourage domestic value addition, providing production-linked incentives for the smelting and fabrication industry, and rationalizing the GST on copper scrap to formalize the recycling sector.

The document analyzes the lithium supply chain for electric vehicle (EV) batteries, highlighting a distributive injustice where the 'Lithium Triangle' (Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile) suffers environmental degradation and water scarcity while North America gains from reduced urban pollution. It argues that science diplomacy—integrating scientific evidence into transnational policy—can establish sustainability thresholds and geochemical tracing methods to ensure responsible sourcing. The authors recommend using sustainability science to define mining standards and employing lithium isotope analysis to verify the origin of materials, drawing parallels from successful agricultural supply chain policies.

The 2021 Beef Deforestation Scorecard by Mighty Earth finds that most global food brands have failed to eliminate deforestation from their beef supply chains despite pledges. While some companies like Tesco and Marks & Spencer show leadership through farm-level traceability and supplier penalties, many others lack beef-specific commitments or fail to monitor indirect suppliers. The report highlights a significant gap between corporate policy and actual implementation, particularly regarding the influence of major Brazilian meatpackers like JBS, Marfrig, and Minerva.

The report argues that while cobalt and lithium are critical for the low-carbon transition, their current recycling rates are low—specifically less than 5% for lithium-ion batteries. It identifies barriers across the primary supply chain (such as conflict and child labour in the DRC), the recycling chain (inefficient collection and technical challenges), and regulatory environments (inapt definitions and ambiguous liability). The authors recommend enhancing eco-design, raising consumer awareness to reduce 'hibernation' of electronics, and updating regulatory frameworks to include clear definitions and meaningful recycling targets to support the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the circular economy.

The document details the essential role of critical minerals in clean energy technologies, the U.S.'s high import reliance, and the regulatory and economic barriers to domestic production. It highlights the environmental and human rights risks of mining, the potential for secondary recovery and recycling, and recent federal legislative and executive actions aimed at securing supply chains.