Sustainability and Second Life: The case for cobalt and lithium recycling

The report argues that while cobalt and lithium are critical for the low-carbon transition, their current recycling rates are low—specifically less than 5% for lithium-ion batteries. It identifies barriers across the primary supply chain (such as conflict and child labour in the DRC), the recycling chain (inefficient collection and technical challenges), and regulatory environments (inapt definitions and ambiguous liability). The authors recommend enhancing eco-design, raising consumer awareness to reduce 'hibernation' of electronics, and updating regulatory frameworks to include clear definitions and meaningful recycling targets to support the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the circular economy.

• Current recycling rates for cobalt and lithium are low, with less than 5 per cent of lithium-ion end-of-life batteries being recycled today.
• Cobalt and lithium demand is expected to rise significantly due to the electric vehicle (EV) market, with projections of increases by more than 60 and 300 per cent, respectively, between 2017 and 2025.
• Primary supply chains for these minerals face severe ethical and stability risks, including child labour, conflict, and corruption in the Democratic Republic of Congo for cobalt, and water scarcity and land rights conflicts in the 'Lithium Triangle' (Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia).
• A significant barrier to recycling is 'hibernation,' where consumers keep unused electronics in storage rather than recycling them; for example, a UK study found phones were used for less than two years before hibernating for three.
• Many current lithium-ion battery recycling processes are economically unviable for lithium recovery, often bypassing the mineral to mitigate costs and focusing only on cobalt or nickel.
• Product design often hinders mineral recovery, as permanent assembly methods like spot-welding make dismantling difficult and costly.
• Regulatory barriers include outdated definitions of waste and recycling, such as those in the UN Basel Convention, which can inhibit the later use of materials by classifying them simply as 'waste'.
• Existing recycling targets, such as those in the EU Batteries Directive, are often too low or based on chemistry rather than application, which disincentivizes the recovery of minerals like lithium.
• Increased mineral recycling could directly support several UN Sustainable Development Goals, specifically SDGs 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, and 16, by reducing reliance on finite resources and creating jobs.

APA

Church, C., & Wuennenberg, L. (2019). Sustainability and Second Life: The case for cobalt and lithium recycling. International Institute for Sustainable Development. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/sustainability-second-life-cobalt-lithium-recycling.pdf

Chicago

Church, Clare, and Laurin Wuennenberg. Sustainability and Second Life: The case for cobalt and lithium recycling. International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2019. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/sustainability-second-life-cobalt-lithium-recycling.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Church |first1=Clare |last2=Wuennenberg |first2=Laurin |title=Sustainability and Second Life: The case for cobalt and lithium recycling |publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development |date=March 2019 |url=https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/sustainability-second-life-cobalt-lithium-recycling.pdf |access-date=23 October 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{church2019sustainability, author = {Church, Clare and Wuennenberg, Laurin}, title = {{Sustainability and Second Life: The case for cobalt and lithium recycling}}, institution = {International Institute for Sustainable Development}, year = {2019}, month = mar, url = {https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/sustainability-second-life-cobalt-lithium-recycling.pdf}, urldate = {2026-10-23}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }