REEFS AT RISK REVISITED

This executive summary from the World Resources Institute details the threats facing global coral reefs, emphasizing the combined impact of local human activities and global climate change. It highlights the critical socio-economic value of reefs for millions of people and the inadequacy of current marine protected areas (MPAs) in ensuring reef resilience.

• The majority of global coral reefs are under threat from human activities. Local sources—including coastal development, watershed-based and marine-based pollution, and overfishing or destructive fishing—pose an immediate and direct threat to more than 50 percent of the world's reefs. When local threats are combined with thermal stress, approximately 75 percent of coral reefs are rated as threatened. Furthermore, 30 percent of the world's reefs have seen an increase in threats in the decade following the 1998 Reefs at Risk analysis.
• Climate change and ocean chemistry are growing threats to reef health. Rising greenhouse gas emissions increase sea surface temperatures, leading to more frequent mass coral bleaching across every coral reef region. Additionally, increased carbon dioxide levels cause ocean acidification, which can weaken coral skeletons and slow growth rates. If local and global threats are not addressed, the percentage of threatened reefs is projected to exceed 90 percent by 2030 and encompass nearly all reefs by 2050.
• Coral reefs provide essential ecosystem services to millions of people. Approximately 850 million people live within 100 km of reefs, and over 275 million reside within 30 km of reefs and 10 km from the coast. Reefs protect 150,000 km of shorelines across more than 100 countries and territories. Economically, reef tourism benefits at least 94 countries and territories, accounting for more than 15 percent of GDP in 23 of them. In the Indian or Pacific Oceans, healthy reefs can produce five to fifteen tons of seafood per square kilometer annually, with reef-associated fish providing about one-quarter of the total fish catch in developing countries.
• Reef degradation has severe social and economic implications, particularly for small-island states. Of the 27 most vulnerable countries and territories, 19 (70 percent) are small-island states. Nine countries—including Indonesia, Philippines, Tanzania, Fiji, Kiribati, Vanuatu, Comoros, and others—are identified as most vulnerable due to high threat levels, high coastal resident dependency on reefs, and limited adaptive capacity.
• While approximately 27 percent of the world's coral reefs (67,350 sq km out of 250,000 sq km) are within marine protected areas (MPAs), most are ineffective. Only 6 percent of global coral reefs are in effectively managed MPAs, and 13 percent are in partially effective areas. A significant portion of the reef area within MPAs is located in Australia. Furthermore, MPA coverage often occurs in areas of lower threat, meaning it less frequently reduces threats in areas facing heavy human pressure.

APA

World Resources Institute (n.d.). REEFS AT RISK REVISITED. https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/reefs_at_risk_key_findings.pdf

Chicago

World Resources Institute. REEFS AT RISK REVISITED. n.d. https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/reefs_at_risk_key_findings.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |author=World Resources Institute |title=REEFS AT RISK REVISITED |url=https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/reefs_at_risk_key_findings.pdf |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{worldresourcesinstitutendreefs, author = {{World Resources Institute}}, title = {{REEFS AT RISK REVISITED}}, institution = {World Resources Institute}, url = {https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/reefs_at_risk_key_findings.pdf}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }