A delicate balance

South Africa is overexploiting its renewable water resources, with more than 60% of its rivers currently overexploited. Forecasts indicate that demand will increase across agricultural, industrial, and municipal sectors through 2035, driven by population growth, urbanisation, and industrial expansion. The report highlights critical vulnerabilities, including deteriorating wastewater treatment facilities—where nearly 25% are in a 'critical state'—and high levels of non-revenue water (approximately 36% of municipal consumption). To avoid a national crisis, the authors recommend implementing tiered water pricing, expanding the use of treated wastewater, and increasing sustainable groundwater extraction. The report also notes that transitioning from coal-based energy to renewables would reduce industrial water demand. While large-scale infrastructure projects are planned, the report argues they are insufficient without aggressive demand reduction and efficiency measures.

• South Africa is currently overexploiting its renewable water resources, with over 60% of its rivers being overexploited and only one-third of main rivers remaining in good condition.
• Water demand is forecast to increase in the agricultural, industrial, and municipal sectors through 2035, driven by factors such as population growth, urbanisation, rising incomes, and non-renewable electricity generation.
• The municipal sector is expected to see the most significant increase in water demand, growing by 1.3 km3 by 2035 relative to 2017 levels.
• South Africa's water infrastructure is in significant disrepair, with approximately 36% of municipal water consumption classified as non-revenue water, primarily due to physical leaks and commercial losses.
• Wastewater treatment is severely lacking; only about 54% of municipal wastewater is treated, and nearly 25% of treatment facilities are in a 'critical state' requiring urgent intervention.
• The agricultural sector is the largest water consumer, using approximately 9.7 km3 (63% of total withdrawals) in 2015, and remains the primary driver of total withdrawals.
• Groundwater is an underutilised resource; the Department of Water and Sanitation estimates there could be as much as 4.8 km3 of exploitable groundwater available.
• Transitioning the national energy mix away from coal toward renewable energy would reduce industrial water demand, as thermoelectric power plants require large amounts of water for cooling.
• The report argues that implementing tiered water pricing—where higher rates are charged for consumption exceeding basic human needs—is an effective way to incentivise conservation.
• Climate change is expected to decrease average precipitation in the western part of South Africa, increasing the risk of severe drought in the south-western region throughout the century.

APA

Donnenfeld, Z., Crookes, C., & Hedden, S. (2018). A delicate balance. Institute for Security Studies. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/sar13-2.pdf

Chicago

Donnenfeld, Zachary, Courtney Crookes, and Steve Hedden. A delicate balance. Institute for Security Studies, 2018. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/sar13-2.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Donnenfeld |first1=Zachary |last2=Crookes |first2=Courtney |last3=Hedden |first3=Steve |title=A delicate balance |publisher=Institute for Security Studies |date=March 2018 |url=https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/sar13-2.pdf |access-date=23 October 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{donnenfeld2018delicate, author = {Donnenfeld, Zachary and Crookes, Courtney and Hedden, Steve}, title = {{A delicate balance}}, institution = {Institute for Security Studies}, year = {2018}, month = mar, url = {https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/sar13-2.pdf}, urldate = {2026-10-23}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }