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The policy brief calculates the environmental costs of aviation in the Single European Sky area, finding that capacity shortfalls in 2018 and 2019 led to approximately 31.86 million nautical miles of additional distance flown. This resulted in 1.06 million tonnes of CO2 emissions, with estimated climate costs ranging from 162 million to 903 million EUR depending on the carbon pricing model and the inclusion of non-CO2 effects. The authors highlight that CO2 represents only about 34% of the sector's effective radiative forcing, with the remainder coming from non-CO2 impacts like contrail cirrus and nitrogen oxides.