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The report assesses decarbonisation strategies for refineries across four major regions, focusing on Scope 1, 2, and 3 emissions. It evaluates technologies such as carbon capture, blue and green hydrogen, and the transition to biorefineries (specifically the HEFA process) or clean fuels facilities. Regional analysis shows that while the US and GCC benefit from cheap natural gas for blue hydrogen, Europe is trending toward green hydrogen imports and biorefinery revamps. Singapore's strategy is heavily influenced by its status as a global trading hub and its lack of domestic natural gas or carbon storage resources. The report concludes that energy efficiency projects are generally the most immediate and viable, while large-scale carbon capture and hydrogen transitions require significant policy support and infrastructure development to be economically feasible.

The document examines the African Union's efforts to enable the free movement of people across the continent, specifically focusing on the FMP Protocol. It identifies a significant gap between the rapid adoption of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA) and the slow ratification of the FMP Protocol, which as of December 2020 had only four ratifications. The author argues that upper-middle-income countries are reluctant to liberalize borders due to fears of uncontrolled economic migration and potential populist backlash in unequal societies. The paper analyzes regional experiences—noting the relative success of the East African Community (EAC) and the stagnation of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) due to South African resistance—and suggests that the FMP Protocol's roadmap needs redrafting to include clear preconditions and asynchronous implementation paths.