Evolution and Challenges

This report by the Institute for Security Studies analyzes the evolution of United Nations peace support operations from traditional peacekeeping to Multifunctional Peace Support Operations (MPSOs). It examines the conceptual confusion between peacekeeping, peace enforcement, and enforcement, while highlighting the challenges of deploying missions in failed states and intra-state conflicts. The authors argue for a shift in operational strategy, suggesting that missions should begin with a strong peace-enforcement posture to establish a secure environment before transitioning to peacekeeping and peacebuilding tasks.

• Since 1990, peace support operations have shifted from resolving international conflicts to addressing intra-state conflicts, often without a formal truce or cease-fire as a precondition for deployment.
• The report distinguishes between three types of operations: 'peacekeeping' (based on consent and minimal force), 'peace enforcement' (midway between peacekeeping and warfare, using force to ensure respect for cease-fires), and 'enforcement' (imposing peace on non-consenting parties, typically in response to aggression).
• The authors argue that the traditional 'sliding rule' of escalating from low-visibility peacekeeping to higher-intensity operations is ineffective. They propose reversing this by deploying peace-enforcement capabilities first to establish a secure environment, then lowering the threshold to peacekeeping as stability is achieved.
• A critical factor in the success of missions like UNTAG (Namibia) and UNTAC (Cambodia) was the establishment of clear political authority and specific mandates that granted the UN extraordinary powers over the warring parties.
• Civil-military interactions in MPSOs are often strained due to a lack of joint planning and differing organizational cultures. A survey indicated that 84% of respondents found civil-military interactions in Somalia to be inadequate, compared to 15% in Cambodia.
• The report identifies a significant gap in specialized training for peacekeepers, particularly in arms control, cantonment, and demobilization. Data shows that for demobilization training, 60.6% of respondents reported they had not received it.
• Effective information gathering and intelligence systems are frequently neglected in peace operations, which the authors claim encourages parties to lose confidence in the process and leaves missions in a reactive rather than pre-emptive posture.
• The 'CNN card' is identified as a non-military source of leverage for peacekeepers, allowing them to threaten the exposure of ill-will or inhumane behavior to international public opinion.

APA

Gamba, V., & Potgieter, J. (1997). Evolution and Challenges. Institute for Security Studies. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/Mono8.pdf

Chicago

Gamba, Virginia, and Jakkie Potgieter. Evolution and Challenges. Institute for Security Studies, 1997. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/Mono8.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Gamba |first1=Virginia |last2=Potgieter |first2=Jakkie |title=Evolution and Challenges |publisher=Institute for Security Studies |date=January 1997 |url=https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/Mono8.pdf |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{gamba1997evolution, author = {Gamba, Virginia and Potgieter, Jakkie}, title = {{Evolution and Challenges}}, institution = {Institute for Security Studies}, year = {1997}, month = jan, url = {https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/Mono8.pdf}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }