Cars, Cobalt and the Congo

This briefing by Zero Carbon Analytics examines the mineral requirements of the energy transition, focusing on the ethical, environmental, and geopolitical challenges associated with the sourcing of cobalt, nickel, and lithium for electric vehicle (EV) batteries.

• Electric vehicles (EVs) require significantly more minerals than internal combustion engine vehicles, with an average EV needing over 200kg of minerals compared to approximately 30kg for petrol or diesel cars. This is driven by lithium-ion batteries which use at least 20 different minerals, including cobalt, lithium, and nickel. The IEA forecasts that total mineral demand could quadruple in a high-EV scenario.
• The global supply of key battery metals is concentrated in a few countries, leading to significant ethical and environmental risks. About 70% of cobalt comes from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), where 20% to 25% is sourced from unregulated small-scale mines employing approximately 40,000 children. Nickel production is dominated by Southeast Asia, with Indonesia as the largest supplier; Indonesia has used deep-sea disposal for mining waste, causing severe environmental damage. Lithium extraction is concentrated in Australia and the 'Lithium Triangle' (Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile), where mining has caused water contamination and displaced local farmers and indigenous groups.
• Implementing a circular economy through battery recycling and reuse could significantly lower the demand for primary minerals. By 2040, higher recycling rates could reduce primary demand for lithium by 25%, and for cobalt and nickel by 35%. Reusing EV batteries for stationary electricity storage can extend their lifetime by about 12 years. Currently, recycling rates are low: in Europe, less than 5% of li-ion batteries are recycled, with only 1% of lithium recovered.
• Industry players and regulators are attempting to mitigate supply chain risks through standards and technology. At least twelve initiatives are creating responsible mining standards, though the document notes these need independent third-party reviews to be effective. Some companies are taking direct action: Volvo is deploying blockchain for tracing, and BMW has signed long-term deals with Northvolt and Managem. Additionally, companies like BYD are developing batteries that avoid nickel and cobalt entirely to reduce costs and exposure to conflict minerals.

APA

Team, Z. (2021). Cars, Cobalt and the Congo. Zero Carbon Analytics. https://zerocarbon-analytics.org/insights/briefings/cars-cobalt-and-the-congo/

Chicago

Team, ZCA. Cars, Cobalt and the Congo. Zero Carbon Analytics, 2021. https://zerocarbon-analytics.org/insights/briefings/cars-cobalt-and-the-congo/.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Team |first1=ZCA |title=Cars, Cobalt and the Congo |publisher=Zero Carbon Analytics |date=20 July 2021 |url=https://zerocarbon-analytics.org/insights/briefings/cars-cobalt-and-the-congo/ |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{team2021cars, author = {Team, ZCA}, title = {{Cars, Cobalt and the Congo}}, institution = {Zero Carbon Analytics}, year = {2021}, month = jul, url = {https://zerocarbon-analytics.org/insights/briefings/cars-cobalt-and-the-congo/}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }