IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR 4TH EDITION AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES

The document outlines a comprehensive procedure for the identification of ivory, focusing on macroscopic and microscopic morphological characteristics. It details the specific diagnostic features of proboscidean (elephant and mammoth), pinniped (walrus), cetacean (sperm whale, orca, narwhal), and other mammalian (hippopotamus, warthog) ivories. It also provides a framework for identifying common substitutes, such as bone, vegetable ivory, and resins, using ultraviolet light and instrumental analysis. Additionally, the guide covers modern forensic techniques including DNA and isotope analysis for determining species, age, and geographic origin, and offers a strategy for detecting illegal ivory trade on online platforms.

• The primary method for distinguishing between extant elephant and extinct mammoth ivory is the measurement of 'Schreger lines' in cross-sections; modern elephants typically have an average Schreger angle greater than 100°, while mammoths have an average less than 100°.
• Walrus ivory is identified by the presence of 'secondary dentine' in the core of tusk cross-sections, which has a marbled appearance, and 'hypercementosis' (excessive cementum) in cheek teeth.
• Sperm whale and orca teeth are characterized by prominent concentric dentine rings in cross-section, but can be distinguished by their shape (rounded/oval for sperm whale, rectangular for orca) and cementum thickness (thick for sperm whale, thin for orca).
• Narwhal ivory is distinguished by its spirally twisted tusk, a hollow interior pulp cavity, and a clearly defined white transition ring separating the cementum from the dentine.
• Hippopotamus ivory is identified by fine concentric lines/bands in the dentine and an angular tusk interstitial zone (TIZ) in canines, while incisors are round in cross-section with a small TIZ.
• Warthog (Phacochoerus) ivory is characterized by a rectangular and 'waisted' cross-section resulting from longitudinal grooves, and a linear TIZ.
• Long-wave ultraviolet light (365 nm) is used as a primary screening tool to distinguish biological ivory/bone, which fluoresces brightly, from most plastics and resins, which appear darkly colored, dull purple, or dark blue.
• Natural substitutes include bone, which is identified by Haversian systems (appearing as pits on polished surfaces), and vegetable ivory (Tagua palm), which is composed of cellulose and identified via FT-IR spectroscopy.
• Advanced forensic methods for ivory include mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) for species identification, radioisotope analysis (specifically the 14C 'bomb curve') for dating samples since the mid-1950s, and stable isotope analysis for determining geographic provenance.
• Identifying illegal ivory online requires monitoring for primary indicators like visible Schreger lines in high-resolution images and secondary indicators such as keywords ('pre-ban', 'pre-convention', 'cross-hatching') or the mention of the 'hot pin test'.

APA

Baker, B. W., Jacobs, R. L., Mann, M.-J., Espinoza, E. O., & Grein, G. (n.d.). IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR 4TH EDITION AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES. WWF International. https://www.worldwildlife.org/documents/198/6smyb8xhvw_R8_IvoryGuide_07162020_high_res.pdf

Chicago

Baker, Barry W., Rachel L. Jacobs, Mary-Jacque Mann, Edgard O. Espinoza, and Giavanna Grein. IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR 4TH EDITION AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES. WWF International, n.d. https://www.worldwildlife.org/documents/198/6smyb8xhvw_R8_IvoryGuide_07162020_high_res.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Baker |first1=Barry W. |last2=Jacobs |first2=Rachel L. |last3=Mann |first3=Mary-Jacque |last4=Espinoza |first4=Edgard O. |last5=Grein |first5=Giavanna |title=IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR 4TH EDITION AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES |publisher=WWF International |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/documents/198/6smyb8xhvw_R8_IvoryGuide_07162020_high_res.pdf |access-date=23 October 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{bakerndidentification, author = {Baker, Barry W. and Jacobs, Rachel L. and Mann, Mary-Jacque and Espinoza, Edgard O. and Grein, Giavanna}, title = {{IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR 4TH EDITION AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES}}, institution = {WWF International}, url = {https://www.worldwildlife.org/documents/198/6smyb8xhvw_R8_IvoryGuide_07162020_high_res.pdf}, urldate = {2026-10-23}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }