The Water-Energy Nexus in the Western States: Projections to 2100

This report by the Stockholm Environment Institute and Synapse Energy Economics models the water-energy nexus in the eleven-state Western Electric Coordinating Council (WECC) through 2100. It examines how different electricity generation pathways—ranging from business-as-usual to aggressive carbon and water reductions—impact water consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and system costs. The analysis concludes that while power plants require water, their total consumption is significantly lower than agricultural and urban use, suggesting the water-energy nexus is a secondary driver of regional water stress compared to other sectors.

• The total impact on water consumption between the most and least water-intensive energy scenarios is relatively small, amounting to less than 1.2 million acre-feet per year by 2100 for the eleven-state region. This impact is most concentrated in Arizona (300,000 acre-feet) and California (250,000 acre-feet), representing a fraction of one percent of annual water consumption in California and 3 percent in Arizona.
• Electric utilities can afford to pay significantly higher prices for water than agricultural users—thousands of dollars per acre-foot—with only minor effects on electricity rates. Consequently, future power plant construction is more likely to be limited by the absolute lack of water rather than the cost of water.
• A carbon price of approximately $70 per ton of carbon dioxide makes carbon-reducing scenarios the most cost-effective. In contrast, water prices would need to reach between $4,000 and $7,000 per acre-foot to make water-conserving strategies the lowest-cost option, a range that exceeds most current water transaction costs.
• Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology, while reducing emissions, significantly increases water demand and reduces plant efficiency. The model assumes CCS plants use 80% more water than traditional coal-fired plants and imposes a 35% energy de-rate.
• In California, water-related services—including water supply, wastewater treatment, and irrigation—account for 19% of the state's electricity use. Delivering water to a southern California household consumes electricity equal to one-third of the region's average household electricity use.
• The Central Arizona Project is the largest electricity consumer in Arizona, using one-fourth of the output of a major coal plant to move over 500 billion gallons of water annually through a 336-mile aqueduct.
• Aggressive energy efficiency measures could significantly reduce electricity demand. The model estimates that such measures could reduce per capita use by 33% by 2050 and approximately 50% by 2100, resulting in total demand that is 14% below 2010 levels by 2100.
• Hydroelectric power provided 23%S percent of the electricity generated in the eleven-state Western Electric Coordinating Council in 2009, but the model assumes no additional large dams will be built in the foreseeable future.

APA

Ackerman, F., & Fisher, J. (2011). The Water-Energy Nexus in the Western States: Projections to 2100. Stockholm Environment Institute. https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate-mitigation-adaptation/Economics_of_climate_policy/sei-westernwater-energy-0211.pdf

Chicago

Ackerman, Frank, and Jeremy Fisher. The Water-Energy Nexus in the Western States: Projections to 2100. Stockholm Environment Institute, 2011. https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate-mitigation-adaptation/Economics_of_climate_policy/sei-westernwater-energy-0211.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Ackerman |first1=Frank |last2=Fisher |first2=Jeremy |title=The Water-Energy Nexus in the Western States: Projections to 2100 |publisher=Stockholm Environment Institute |date=February 2011 |url=https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate-mitigation-adaptation/Economics_of_climate_policy/sei-westernwater-energy-0211.pdf |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{ackerman2011waterenergy, author = {Ackerman, Frank and Fisher, Jeremy}, title = {{The Water-Energy Nexus in the Western States: Projections to 2100}}, institution = {Stockholm Environment Institute}, year = {2011}, month = feb, url = {https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate-mitigation-adaptation/Economics_of_climate_policy/sei-westernwater-energy-0211.pdf}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }