sei-pb-2012-3c-water-for-energy-6b46e4ec8d3044fa.pdf

This policy brief, produced by the Stockholm Environment Institute in partnership with the 3C initiative, examines the water-energy nexus within the context of a low-carbon transition. It highlights that while low-carbon electricity technologies are essential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, some may require as much or more water as fossil-fuel generation, potentially limiting their viability in water-stressed regions. The document provides a detailed case study of California to demonstrate how strategic technology choices—such as prioritizing solar photovoltaics over solar thermal and adopting dry-cooling systems—can simultaneously reduce emissions and water demand.

• Low-carbon electricity technologies are essential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but some may be less viable in water-constrained areas because they can use as much or more water than fossil-fuel generation.
• Climate-related water constraints are already impacting electricity production globally, leading to output curtailment or plant shutdowns during droughts and heat waves. Examples include a 2006 drought in Uganda that reduced hydropower capacity by one-third and a 2003 heat wave that led France and Germany to curtail nuclear power, with France alone curtailing 4,000MW.
• Thermoelectric power plants, which include conventional coal, nuclear, natural gas, and oil, rely heavily on water for cooling. In the U.S., these plants accounted for 41 per cent of freshwater withdrawals in 2005, representing the largest single share.
• There are three primary cooling methods for thermoelectric plants: once-through (which returns most water but at higher temperatures), wet-recirculating (which loses 70-90 per cent of withdrawn water to evaporation), and dry-cooling (which can reduce consumption by over 90 per cent but is more expensive and less efficient). As of the reporting period, only 1 per cent of U.S. thermoelectric plants used dry-cooling.
• A case study of California's Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) shows that under a 'business as usual' (BAU) scenario, emissions, water withdrawals, and water consumption all increase. Under the standard RPS, emissions and withdrawals drop, but water consumption increases by 219 Mm3 due to the use of solar thermal, biomass, and geothermal power.
• The 'RPS+Technology' scenario for California demonstrates that strategic choices can reduce both water and emissions. By shifting the solar mix from 70% solar thermal/30% PV to a 50:50 mix, and switching some systems to dry-cooling, water withdrawals dropped by 3,339 Mm3 and consumption rose by only 28 Mm3. To offset efficiency losses from these changes, carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) was added to 17 per cent of natural gas generation capacity.
• To mitigate water risks, energy planners are encouraged to prioritize low- or no-water technologies such as wind, solar PV, small hydro, and binary-cycle geothermal. Conversely, solar thermal and geothermal steam are higher risk because they are often sited in hot, arid areas.

APA

Stockholm Environment Institute (n.d.). sei-pb-2012-3c-water-for-energy-6b46e4ec8d3044fa.pdf. https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate-mitigation-adaptation/SEI-PB-2012-3C-Water-for-Energy.pdf

Chicago

Stockholm Environment Institute. sei-pb-2012-3c-water-for-energy-6b46e4ec8d3044fa.pdf. n.d. https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate-mitigation-adaptation/SEI-PB-2012-3C-Water-for-Energy.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |author=Stockholm Environment Institute |title=sei-pb-2012-3c-water-for-energy-6b46e4ec8d3044fa.pdf |url=https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate-mitigation-adaptation/SEI-PB-2012-3C-Water-for-Energy.pdf |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{stockholmenvironmentinstitutendseipb20123cwaterforenergy6b46e4ec8d3044fapdf, author = {{Stockholm Environment Institute}}, title = {{sei-pb-2012-3c-water-for-energy-6b46e4ec8d3044fa.pdf}}, institution = {Stockholm Environment Institute}, url = {https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate-mitigation-adaptation/SEI-PB-2012-3C-Water-for-Energy.pdf}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }