Beyond Definitions

The paper argues that the legal distinction between migrant smuggling (facilitating illegal movement for profit) and human trafficking (exploitation) is increasingly blurred in practice, as smugglers often transition into traffickers. It contends that restrictive border controls do not stop migration but instead make smuggling the 'new normal,' increasing migrant vulnerability and profitability for criminal networks. The authors highlight that most irregular migrants successfully reach their destinations despite high risks, and that state efforts to 'demonize' smugglers often serve as political cover for the failure of the global asylum regime.

• The legal distinction between migrant smuggling and human trafficking is often inapplicable in reality because smugglers frequently adopt the role of traffickers, using clients for extortion, forced labor, or sexual enslavement.
• Restrictive migration regimes and strengthened border controls have made the use of paid facilitators indispensable, effectively making smuggling the standard method for large migration flows.
• Despite the high visibility of migrant deaths, the majority of individuals attempting irregular migration successfully reach their destinations, leading migrants to view the risk as a rational gamble against the benefits of security and prosperity.
• States may strategically conflate smuggling and trafficking to justify military action or to project an image of protecting refugees while avoiding the legal obligations associated with identifying and assisting victims of trafficking.
• The global asylum regime is under threat as mixed migration flows—combining refugees and economic migrants—challenge the ability of developed nations to distinguish between those needing protection and those moving for economic reasons.
• Aggressive anti-smuggling prosecutions can inadvertently increase migrant vulnerability by pushing smugglers to use more dangerous methods, such as abandoning migrants at sea or forcing them to navigate vessels.

APA

Carling, J., Gallagher, A. T., & Horwood, C. (2015). Beyond Definitions. Peace Research Institute Oslo. https://cdn.cloud.prio.org/files/d9765239-90d9-4a00-85af-68938d4c4a0f/Beyond Definitions Global migration and the smuggling-trafficking nexus.pdf?inline=true

Chicago

Carling, Jørgen, Anne T. Gallagher, and Christopher Horwood. Beyond Definitions. Peace Research Institute Oslo, 2015. https://cdn.cloud.prio.org/files/d9765239-90d9-4a00-85af-68938d4c4a0f/Beyond Definitions Global migration and the smuggling-trafficking nexus.pdf?inline=true.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Carling |first1=Jørgen |last2=Gallagher |first2=Anne T. |last3=Horwood |first3=Christopher |title=Beyond Definitions |publisher=Peace Research Institute Oslo |date=November 2015 |url=https://cdn.cloud.prio.org/files/d9765239-90d9-4a00-85af-68938d4c4a0f/Beyond Definitions Global migration and the smuggling-trafficking nexus.pdf?inline=true |access-date=23 October 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{carling2015beyond, author = {Carling, Jørgen and Gallagher, Anne T. and Horwood, Christopher}, title = {{Beyond Definitions}}, institution = {Peace Research Institute Oslo}, year = {2015}, month = nov, url = {https://cdn.cloud.prio.org/files/d9765239-90d9-4a00-85af-68938d4c4a0f/Beyond Definitions Global migration and the smuggling-trafficking nexus.pdf?inline=true}, urldate = {2026-10-23}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }