Sustaining the Peace in Angola

The document examines the transition from formal peace to social peace in Angola, focusing on the DD&R of UNITA and FAA combatants. It highlights the critical link between the reintegration of ex-soldiers and the resettlement of millions of internally displaced persons (IDPs), arguing that sustainable peace requires a community-based approach to avoid local conflict. The authors analyze the failures of the Bicesse and Lusaka processes—citing rigid timetables, insufficient resources, and poor reintegration planning—and evaluate the 2002 'Memorandum of Understanding' and the subsequent General Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme (PGDR). Key challenges identified include the proliferation of small arms among civilians, the lack of sustainable livelihoods in rural areas, and the institutional weakness of coordinating agencies like IRSEM.

• The 2002 DD&R process saw a significantly higher number of participants than initially planned; while the government expected 50,000 UNITA soldiers, by 27 July 2002, 85,585 soldiers and 280,261 family members had gathered in quartering and reception areas.
• The Bicesse Peace Accords (1991) failed largely due to a rigid timetable that rushed elections before disarmament and demobilisation were complete, leading to the maintenance of 'secret armies' and a rapid return to war.
• The Lusaka Protocol (1994) suffered from a lack of confidence and loose timetables, which allowed UNITA to delay the process and regroup. Additionally, the failure to normalise state administration heightened insecurity and obstructed reintegration.
• A critical security threat to sustainable peace is the estimated 3 to 4 million small arms and light weapons remaining in the hands of the civilian population, as DD&R processes typically do not address non-combatant armaments.
• The government's strategy of providing large lump-sum payments (five months' salary) to ex-combatants in gathering areas caused local inflation and 'consumer booms', potentially depleting funds intended for long-term resettlement.
• The General Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme (PGDR) prioritises agriculture as the primary economic activity for ex-combatants, though this is contested by observers who note that without land tenure security and demining, rural resettlement may be reversed.
• The creation of the National Commission for the Social and Productive Reintegration of the Demobilised and Displaced (CNRSPDD) aimed to unify the management of both ex-combatants and IDPs to prevent local tensions caused by providing support to soldiers while neglecting displaced civilians.
• Socio-economic profiling of UNITA ex-combatants reveals a population with very low formal education (over 70% did not go beyond fourth grade) and high levels of psychological trauma, necessitating long-term psycho-social support.

APA

Porto, J. G., & Parsons, I. (2003). Sustaining the Peace in Angola. Institute for Security Studies. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/Mono83.pdf

Chicago

Porto, João Gomes, and Imogen Parsons. Sustaining the Peace in Angola. Institute for Security Studies, 2003. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/Mono83.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Porto |first1=João Gomes |last2=Parsons |first2=Imogen |title=Sustaining the Peace in Angola |publisher=Institute for Security Studies |date=17 February 2003 |url=https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/Mono83.pdf |access-date=23 October 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{porto2003sustaining, author = {Porto, João Gomes and Parsons, Imogen}, title = {{Sustaining the Peace in Angola}}, institution = {Institute for Security Studies}, year = {2003}, month = feb, url = {https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/Mono83.pdf}, urldate = {2026-10-23}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }