A Mixed Reception: Mozambican and Congolese Refugees in South Africa

This research paper examines the experiences of Mozambican refugees who fled the civil war (1979–1992) and settled in South Africa, primarily in the former homelands of Gazankulu and KaNgwane. It analyzes the complex interplay of ethnic solidarity, systemic exploitation in the labor market, and the failure of repatriation and regularization programs to fully integrate these populations into South African society.

• Between 1985 and 1987, approximately 250,000 to 350,000 Mozambican refugees entered South Africa, mostly from Maputo and Gaza provinces. While the apartheid government denied them official refugee status, the Gazankulu homeland provided a warm reception, including reception centers and land, driven by ethnic solidarity with the Shangaan-speaking population.
• Despite ethnic ties, Mozambican refugees were marginalized within Gazankulu, often relegated to separate land for housing and burials and denied basic infrastructure like water and electricity. They formed a distinct underclass, frequently employed as low-wage domestic and field laborers for their South African neighbors.
• In the lowveld agricultural sector, a three-tiered labor market emerged where undocumented Mozambican migrants—many of them war refugees—occupied the lowest tier as 'temporary workers' or 'spare chaps.' These workers earned wages (R4.50 to R6 per day in 1998) that no South African would accept, supported by a system of security force collusion where 'farm tags' were used to protect 'economically active' migrants from arrest.
• The UNHCR's voluntary repatriation program starting in September 1993 was largely unsuccessful; only 31,074 people enrolled out of an expected 250,000. The program was criticized for crude survey methods and for forcing refugees to choose between returning home or remaining in South Africa illegally, as those who stayed were not granted formal documentation.
• Between 1999 and 2000, the South African government regularized the status of 176,648 Mozambican refugees, granting them permanent residence. A 2004 Constitutional Court ruling further enabled these permanent residents to access state old age pensions and child support grants.
• Evidence from 2001 to 2004 suggests that legal regularization did not end the refugees' status as an underclass. Former refugees continued to live in segregated, impoverished areas (such as Maputo-sikumo), faced continued suspicion from locals, and were often treated as undocumented by employers and officials despite possessing permanent residence IDs.

APA

Steinberg, J. (2005). A Mixed Reception: Mozambican and Congolese Refugees in South Africa. Institute for Security Studies. https://issafrica.org/topics/conflict-prevention-and-analysis/20-may-2008-iss-feature-xenophobia-in-south-africa/01-jun-2005-monograph-no-117-a-mixed-reception-mozambican-and-congolese-refugees-in-south-africa-jonny-steinberg/part-one

Chicago

Steinberg, Jonny. A Mixed Reception: Mozambican and Congolese Refugees in South Africa. Institute for Security Studies, 2005. https://issafrica.org/topics/conflict-prevention-and-analysis/20-may-2008-iss-feature-xenophobia-in-south-africa/01-jun-2005-monograph-no-117-a-mixed-reception-mozambican-and-congolese-refugees-in-south-africa-jonny-steinberg/part-one.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Steinberg |first1=Jonny |title=A Mixed Reception: Mozambican and Congolese Refugees in South Africa |publisher=Institute for Security Studies |date=1 June 2005 |url=https://issafrica.org/topics/conflict-prevention-and-analysis/20-may-2008-iss-feature-xenophobia-in-south-africa/01-jun-2005-monograph-no-117-a-mixed-reception-mozambican-and-congolese-refugees-in-south-africa-jonny-steinberg/part-one |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{steinberg2005mixed, author = {Steinberg, Jonny}, title = {{A Mixed Reception: Mozambican and Congolese Refugees in South Africa}}, institution = {Institute for Security Studies}, year = {2005}, month = jun, url = {https://issafrica.org/topics/conflict-prevention-and-analysis/20-may-2008-iss-feature-xenophobia-in-south-africa/01-jun-2005-monograph-no-117-a-mixed-reception-mozambican-and-congolese-refugees-in-south-africa-jonny-steinberg/part-one}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }