The geography factor: How environmental conditions shape methane monitoring from space

This report by Ember and the Clean Air Task Force examines how environmental factors—including cloud cover, terrain roughness, sun elevation, surface brightness, and wind speed—limit the efficacy of satellite-based methane monitoring. It highlights that approximately 30% of global upstream coal and oil and gas infrastructure is located in regions where these conditions make spaceborne observations challenging, necessitating a multi-tiered observing system that integrates satellites with near-ground measurement technologies.

• Five primary environmental factors can hinder the ability of satellites to detect methane: cloud cover, terrain roughness, sun elevation, surface brightness, and wind speed. Cloud cover is identified as the most significant obstacle because satellites cannot see through clouds, which is particularly problematic in tropical regions. Terrain roughness in mountainous areas creates shadows and complicates signal interpretation, while low sun elevation in high-latitude regions during winter reduces the light available for sensors. Dark surfaces, such as forests or snow, reflect less infrared light, and high wind speeds can disperse methane plumes, increasing detection thresholds.
• Approximately 30% of global upstream coal and oil and gas infrastructure is situated in regions classified as 'moderate' or 'difficult' for satellite observation. Specifically, the report estimates that 30% of global coal production and 29% of global onshore oil and gas production occur in these challenging-to-monitor regions.
• The impact of environmental challenges on coal production varies significantly by country. Indonesia is highlighted as particularly challenging, with 84% of its coal production (496 million tonnes per year) in regions where persistent cloudiness and mountainous terrain impede monitoring. Other countries with significant coal production in challenging regions include Russia (46%), India (27%), China (22%), and the United States (22%). In contrast, South Africa (99%) and Australia (91%) have nearly ideal conditions for the majority of their production.
• Oil and gas production also faces regional monitoring challenges, most notably in Russia, where 62% of production is in challenging regions, particularly the Western Siberian Basin. Canada has 46% of its production in challenging areas, often due to the Rocky Mountains or low sun elevation in the Alberta Basin. In the United States, 22% of production is challenging to monitor, with specific issues in Alaska (lack of sunlight), the Appalachian Basin (clouds and dark surfaces), and the Ventura Basin (rugged terrain).
• Other notable regional challenges for oil and gas include Latin America, where 98% of Ecuador's production and 70% of Colombia's production are in challenging-to-monitor regions due to the Amazon's tropical rainforest climate and the Andes Mountains. In the Middle East, 19% of production in Iran is challenged by the rugged terrain of the Zagros Mountains, and parts of Iraq are affected by seasonal Shamal winds between June and August.
• Because no single technology can capture all methane emissions, the report advocates for a 'multi-tiered observing system.' This approach combines spaceborne instruments—which serve as the backbone for regional assessments and detecting large events—with near-ground measurements from aircraft, drones, ground vehicles, or fixed sensors to pinpoint specific sources and provide data in regions where satellites are limited.

APA

Shannon, S., & Binietoglou, I. (2025). The geography factor: How environmental conditions shape methane monitoring from space. Ember. https://ember-energy.org/app/uploads/2025/03/The-geography-factor-How-environmental-conditions-shape-methane-monitoring-from-space.pdf

Chicago

Shannon, Sarah, and Ioannis Binietoglou. The geography factor: How environmental conditions shape methane monitoring from space. Ember, 2025. https://ember-energy.org/app/uploads/2025/03/The-geography-factor-How-environmental-conditions-shape-methane-monitoring-from-space.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Shannon |first1=Sarah |last2=Binietoglou |first2=Ioannis |title=The geography factor: How environmental conditions shape methane monitoring from space |publisher=Ember |date=18 March 2025 |url=https://ember-energy.org/app/uploads/2025/03/The-geography-factor-How-environmental-conditions-shape-methane-monitoring-from-space.pdf |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{shannon2025geography, author = {Shannon, Sarah and Binietoglou, Ioannis}, title = {{The geography factor: How environmental conditions shape methane monitoring from space}}, institution = {Ember}, year = {2025}, month = mar, url = {https://ember-energy.org/app/uploads/2025/03/The-geography-factor-How-environmental-conditions-shape-methane-monitoring-from-space.pdf}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }