Vulnerability to displacement: the case of Kihoto, Kenya

The paper examines how the 2020 flooding of Lake Naivasha displaced approximately 500 people in the Kihoto informal settlement. It finds that vulnerability is driven less by environmental factors and more by socio-economic marginalization, including precarious employment in horticulture and tourism, lack of secure land tenure, and a deficiency in official disaster response. The study highlights a 'double tragedy' where flooding coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic, eroding long-term resilience and crippling local informal savings groups (chamas). Findings indicate that women aged 18-35 suffered the highest rates of unemployment post-disaster. The authors argue for vulnerability reduction through livelihood diversification, investment in basic infrastructure, and inclusive, co-produced risk governance.

• The 2020 flooding of Lake Naivasha displaced approximately 500 people in the Kihoto informal settlement, with the most severe impacts concentrated along the low-lying shoreline.
• Vulnerability to displacement is primarily driven by socio-economic factors rather than environmental triggers alone, with 93% of survey respondents identifying income as the main determinant of vulnerability.
• The convergence of the 2020 floods and the COVID-19 pandemic created a 'double tragedy' that severely damaged incomes and eroded long-term resilience, particularly in the horticulture and tourism sectors.
• Gender-specific vulnerabilities are evident, with women between 18 and 35 reporting the highest inability to find work or return to previous employment after the disaster; 73% of women in this age group remained unemployed.
• Official disaster response and recovery capacities in Kihoto are severely limited; only 12% of household respondents were aware of public institutions overseeing displacement, and 96% reported receiving no official psychological support.
• Displacement disrupted the social fabric by crippling 'chamas' (informal savings groups), which hindered money collection and disbursements, thereby removing a critical financial safety net for the poor.
• Land tenure issues complicate recovery, as government resettlement efforts often fail to recognize the informal rights of second or third-generation plot owners.
• Post-flood environmental changes have reshaped vulnerabilities, including reports of increased soil salinity that has decimated crops, potentially caused by Lake Naivasha connecting to the saline Lake Oloidien.
• Despite the lack of official aid, the community relied heavily on social networks, with 66% of respondents citing supportive family as the most important factor in coping with displacement.

APA

Parviainen, J., Cárdenas, M., Sitati, C., Mungo, C., Onyango, S. A., & Nzuve, L. M. (2024). Vulnerability to displacement: the case of Kihoto, Kenya. Stockholm Environment Institute. https://www.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/vulnerability-displacement-kihoto-sei2024-024.pdf

Chicago

Parviainen, Janne, Mario Cárdenas, Cynthia Sitati, Carol Mungo, Sharon Anyango Onyango, and Lawrence Malindi Nzuve. Vulnerability to displacement: the case of Kihoto, Kenya. Stockholm Environment Institute, 2024. https://www.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/vulnerability-displacement-kihoto-sei2024-024.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Parviainen |first1=Janne |last2=Cárdenas |first2=Mario |last3=Sitati |first3=Cynthia |last4=Mungo |first4=Carol |last5=Onyango |first5=Sharon Anyango |last6=Nzuve |first6=Lawrence Malindi |title=Vulnerability to displacement: the case of Kihoto, Kenya |publisher=Stockholm Environment Institute |date=June 2024 |url=https://www.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/vulnerability-displacement-kihoto-sei2024-024.pdf |access-date=23 October 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{parviainen2024vulnerability, author = {Parviainen, Janne and Cárdenas, Mario and Sitati, Cynthia and Mungo, Carol and Onyango, Sharon Anyango and Nzuve, Lawrence Malindi}, title = {{Vulnerability to displacement: the case of Kihoto, Kenya}}, institution = {Stockholm Environment Institute}, year = {2024}, month = jun, url = {https://www.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/vulnerability-displacement-kihoto-sei2024-024.pdf}, urldate = {2026-10-23}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }