A BRIEF GUIDE TO BATTERIES

The document explains the fundamentals of battery cells, focusing on the critical role of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage. It details the mineral requirements for cathodes and anodes, highlighting the high geographic concentration of production for graphite, cobalt, and lithium. The guide also analyzes the battery value chain, noting China's dominance in midstream processing and cell manufacturing, and discusses future technologies like sodium-ion and solid-state batteries.

• Batteries are categorized into four primary types: disposable (non-chargeable), rechargeable, reserve (used in specific applications like military systems), and fuel cells. Disposable batteries currently represent 20% of the battery market.
• Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are the most common chemistry for electronic devices, energy storage, and electric vehicles due to their high energy density, thermal stability, and compact size. Their cathodes vary in chemistry (e.g., LCO, LMO, LFP, NMC, NCA, LTO) to suit different applications, with NMC batteries accounting for 72% of global EV batteries in 2020, excluding China.
• The production of critical minerals for Li-ion batteries is highly concentrated geographically. In 2021, China produced 82% of the world's natural graphite, the Democratic Republic of the Congo produced 72% of unprocessed cobalt, and Australia accounted for 53% of lithium production. Indonesia produces one-third of the nickel market.
• The battery value chain is divided into upstream (extraction and processing), midstream (smelting and refining), and downstream (industrial application and integration). China dominates the midstream, controlling more than 75% of the manufacturing capacity for battery cells and cell components, creating import dependencies for global EV manufacturers.
• Sodium-ion batteries are an emerging alternative to Li-ion batteries, expected to enter the market in 2023. They eliminate the need for lithium, cobalt, and nickel, and offer better safety as they are non-flammable, though they have lower energy capacity and are heavier.
• Solid-state batteries replace liquid electrolytes with solid compounds, offering higher power-to-weight ratios, longer shelf life, and non-flammability. However, they do not resolve critical mineral supply issues because they still rely on similar cathode and anode materials as current batteries.

APA

Ramdoo, I. (2022). A BRIEF GUIDE TO BATTERIES. International Institute for Sustainable Development. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2023-09/brief-guide-to-batteries.pdf

Chicago

Ramdoo, Isabelle. A BRIEF GUIDE TO BATTERIES. International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2022. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2023-09/brief-guide-to-batteries.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Ramdoo |first1=Isabelle |title=A BRIEF GUIDE TO BATTERIES |publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development |date=2022 |url=https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2023-09/brief-guide-to-batteries.pdf |access-date=23 October 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{ramdoo2022brief, author = {Ramdoo, Isabelle}, title = {{A BRIEF GUIDE TO BATTERIES}}, institution = {International Institute for Sustainable Development}, year = {2022}, url = {https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2023-09/brief-guide-to-batteries.pdf}, urldate = {2026-10-23}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }