On Clustering International Environmental Agreements

The document argues that the current structure of international environmental management is overly complex and fragmented, with over 300 agreements. It proposes 'clustering'—the coordination of related regimes through shared tools—as a realistic alternative to the 'daunting task' of merging agreements. The author identifies specific tools for clustering, such as the colocation of Conferences of Parties (COPs), joint financial incentives, and shared science assessment mechanisms. The paper categorizes existing agreements into five potential clusters: the Conservation Complex, the Global Atmosphere, the Hazardous Substances Complex, the Marine Environment Complex, and the Extractive Resources Complex, while also suggesting regional clustering for land-use and river basin issues. It concludes that the success of this process depends on the identification of national 'champions' to lead negotiations.

• Merging international environmental agreements is generally unfeasible due to several structural obstacles, including differing membership, distinct domestic bureaucratic responsibilities, the existence of committed civil society constituencies, and competition between countries to host secretariats.
• Clustering can be achieved through a variety of organizational tools that do not require legal mergers, such as the colocation of Conference of Parties (COP) meetings, the use of permanent locations for meetings to develop supporting infrastructure, and staff exchanges between secretariats.
• Financial tools can drive clustering, specifically through the coordination of regime budgets, the tracking of development assistance, and the use of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) as a structure for international subsidies.
• The author proposes five substantive global clusters based on problem structure: the Conservation Complex (e.g., CBD, CITES, Ramsar), the Global Atmosphere (UNFCCC, Montreal Protocol), the Hazardous Substances Complex (Basel, POPS, PIC), the Marine Environment Complex (IMO, LOS), and the Extractive Resources Complex (forestry and fisheries).
• Regional clustering is identified as the most practical approach for issues based on land use, river basins, and long-range air pollution, as these are often sensitive to national security and sovereignty and do not suit a global regime.
• Cross-cutting institutions, particularly science assessment and monitoring, should be managed by a universal organization like UNEP to avoid duplication and ensure consistency, as few individual regimes have the resources for full-scale assessments.
• National coordination of environmental positions is hindered by the fragmented distribution of responsibilities across different domestic agencies, the influence of bureaucratic clientism, and the political cost of making hard domestic policy decisions.
• The implementation of clustering requires 'champions'—countries willing to invest political capital to lead the process. A country that does not host a secretariat may be a more effective champion because it avoids suspicions of wanting to relocate other secretariats.

APA

von Moltke, K. (2001). On Clustering International Environmental Agreements. International Institute for Sustainable Development. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/trade_clustering_meas.pdf

Chicago

von Moltke, Konrad. On Clustering International Environmental Agreements. International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2001. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/trade_clustering_meas.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=von Moltke |first1=Konrad |title=On Clustering International Environmental Agreements |publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development |date=June 2001 |url=https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/trade_clustering_meas.pdf |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{vonmoltke2001clustering, author = {von Moltke, Konrad}, title = {{On Clustering International Environmental Agreements}}, institution = {International Institute for Sustainable Development}, year = {2001}, month = jun, url = {https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/trade_clustering_meas.pdf}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }