On Clustering International Environmental Agreements

This research paper by Konrad von Moltke explores the concept of "clustering" as a method to reform international environmental management. Rather than pursuing the daunting task of merging existing international environmental agreements (MEAs), the author proposes grouping related regimes to increase efficiency and effectiveness through shared tools, coordinated governance, and joint institutional frameworks.

• The current structure of international environmental management is viewed as inadequate and overly complex, with some counts suggesting there are in excess of 300 international environmental agreements.
• Merging existing international environmental agreements is considered an impractical and daunting task due to several obstacles: differing membership, distinct domestic bureaucratic responsibilities, the existence of committed civil society constituencies, and competitive interests regarding the location of secretariats.
• Clustering is proposed as a process of increasing efficiency and effectiveness through organizational arrangements short of a full legal merger. Tools for clustering include the colocation of Conference of Parties (COP) meetings, the use of permanent locations for meetings to develop support infrastructure, and the coordination of subsidiary bodies.
• Financial incentives and the 'power of the purse' are identified as critical tools for promoting clustering, particularly through the coordination of regime budgets and development assistance funding for developing countries.
• The author suggests several potential clusters based on problem structure rather than just subject area: the Conservation Complex (including CBD, CITES, and Ramsar), the Global Atmosphere (UNFCCC and the ozone regime), the Hazardous Substances Complex (managed by UNEP), the Marine Environment Complex (IMO, UNEP, and LOS), and the Extractive Resources Complex.
• Certain institutions are pervasive across environmental regimes and could be clustered at a universal level to improve efficiency, specifically science assessment, monitoring and environmental assessment, and transparency and participation.
• The author argues that reinforced dispute settlement mechanisms are not a primary need for environmental regimes, as they differ from trade regimes; environmental disputes typically migrate to the Conference of Parties for negotiation rather than adjudication.
• National coordination of international positions is hindered by three main factors: the domestic distribution of responsibilities across different agencies, the influence of specific regime constituencies, and the political cost of making hard domestic policy decisions.
• The success of the clustering process depends on the identification of 'champions'—countries willing to invest political capital to promote a specific outcome—noting that a country that does not host a secretariat may be a more neutral and effective champion.

APA

von Moltke, K. (2001). On Clustering International Environmental Agreements. International Institute for Sustainable Development. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/trade_clustering_meas.pdf

Chicago

von Moltke, Konrad. On Clustering International Environmental Agreements. International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2001. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/trade_clustering_meas.pdf.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=von Moltke |first1=Konrad |title=On Clustering International Environmental Agreements |publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development |date=June 2001 |url=https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/trade_clustering_meas.pdf |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{vonmoltke2001clustering, author = {von Moltke, Konrad}, title = {{On Clustering International Environmental Agreements}}, institution = {International Institute for Sustainable Development}, year = {2001}, month = jun, url = {https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/trade_clustering_meas.pdf}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }