Protecting the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities

This policy brief evaluates the Global Programme of Action (GPA), a non-binding UNEP initiative launched in 1995 to combat land-based marine pollution. While the GPA successfully shifted global focus toward source-based action and established key partnerships for nutrient management, marine litter, and wastewater, it has struggled against increasing pollution levels and a shift toward more specialized, legally binding treaties. The document highlights that 80% of marine pollution comes from land, with plastics and untreated sewage posing severe threats to marine ecosystems and human livelihoods.

• Approximately 80% of marine pollution originates from land-based sources, including untreated sewage, agricultural run-off, industrial oils and heavy metals, and sediment from logging and earthworks.
• The Global Programme of Action (GPA), adopted in 1995 by 108 countries and the European Commission, is a non-legally binding programme housed at UNEP. It focuses on helping countries create national plans to reduce land-based pollution, specifically targeting sewage, nutrient management, and marine litter.
• The GPA established three global partnerships to address specific pollution types: Nutrient Management (launched 2009), Marine Litter (launched 2012), and the Global Wastewater Initiative (launched 2013). While these partnerships increased global attention and provided technical resources, the document notes that multi-stakeholder partnerships can be "double-edged," potentially inhibiting action due to the self-interest of participants.
• Marine plastic pollution is a critical issue, with plastics comprising 60% to 90% of marine litter and 8 million tonnes entering oceans annually. Despite awareness, the volume of plastic entering oceans was predicted to double between 2010 and 2025, partly because plastic avoidance is often treated as a consumer choice rather than a regulatory or manufacturer responsibility.
• Nutrient pollution from nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, and aquaculture creates "dead zones" in the ocean. The UN estimates that 120 million tonnes of nitrogen and 10 million tonnes of phosphorous are released into the environment annually.
• Sewage is the largest source of marine contamination by volume. Global efforts are hindered by the fact that over 80% of collected wastewater is discharged without treatment, particularly in developing countries facing rapid urbanization and high infrastructure costs.
• The GPA's relevance has declined as global governance has shifted toward more specialized, legally binding instruments, such as the Stockholm Convention on POPs and the Minamata Convention on mercury. However, the GPA is credited with shifting the governance focus from area-based to source-based action and influencing the Sustainable Development Goals (target 14.1).

APA

Paul,, D. (2021). Protecting the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. International Institute for Sustainable Development. https://www.iisd.org/articles/deep-dive/protecting-marine-environment-land-based-activities

Chicago

Paul,, Delia. Protecting the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2021. https://www.iisd.org/articles/deep-dive/protecting-marine-environment-land-based-activities.

Wikipedia

{{cite report |last1=Paul, |first1=Delia |title=Protecting the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities |publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development |date=19 January 2021 |url=https://www.iisd.org/articles/deep-dive/protecting-marine-environment-land-based-activities |access-date=17 August 2026 |via=Climate Insights Directory}}

BibTeX

@techreport{paul2021protecting, author = {Paul,, Delia}, title = {{Protecting the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities}}, institution = {International Institute for Sustainable Development}, year = {2021}, month = jan, url = {https://www.iisd.org/articles/deep-dive/protecting-marine-environment-land-based-activities}, urldate = {2026-08-17}, note = {Indexed by Climate Insights Directory} }